This paper was written during an undergraduate program in approximately 2007, with the help of a mentor.
“Hidden
identities”
My research will
explore information on hidden racial identities and the survival of multiracial
individuals who were mixed with particularly Cherokee, and other ethnicities.
The ethnicities mixed with Cherokee include African-American, and
Euro-American. My research will look at how identity amongst “mixed blood”,
“Black Indians”, “multiracial” people was sometimes hidden in the Southeastern
part of the United States between the eighteenth and twenty-first centuries. On
one hand, if a multiracial person was of Native descent, he or she had to hide
this fact to escape Indian removal and/or discrimination, and sometimes
enslavement. On the other hand, if a multiracial person was of “Negro blood,”
he or she had to hide this fact for fear of enslavement and/or
discrimination. In all cases, the hiding
of multiracial identity was a method of avoiding discriminatory practices and
ultimately a means of survival.
Many of the text
used in this research showed a great deal of resistance from multiracial
persons through out the 17th through the 21st century to
the dominant Caucasian society that tried to force their hegemonic views of
cultural politics, economics, and social moray’s. The resistance of multiracial individuals was
fluid and ever changing, due largely to the political, economical and social
climates at each time period in opposition to the dominant society. Never the less, their were some people who
were of mixed racial ancestry that hid their multiracial identity in order to
avoid discrimination and gain acceptance by their tribes and/or the dominant
society and some who out right resisted any racial classification.
The method of
hiding ones identity for survival for Cherokee may have started within the time
of the Indian removals. Cherokees who
could pass as another race did, in order to avoid removal. “But not all the Indians had left
Georgia. Many compassionate white
families suddenly acquired relative with what looked like deep suntans. Who would question a white mans word about
his Auntie Nancy, recently come to live with her nephew.”[1]
The story of the Cherokee Trail of Tears and other Eastern Tribes in the early
part of the nineteenth century can express who had an opportunity to run away
and avoid removal.
People who were of
mixed blood had a harder time than people who were full blood during this
period because they were not accepted into the larger dominant society or
within their own tribe. [2]
This author expresses caution when approaching living elders in regards to
their past because of the tumultuous history of American Indians and the
difficulty of mixed blood people to be identified as such. Due to the hardship that was endured by mixed
bloods who were rejected from their own land and from their own people, this
lead mix people into alternate means of survival such as denying their Cherokee
linage. [JL1]“Cherokees
who escaped the rifle and bayonet of the United States Army under General
Winfield Scott had to cease to exist as Cherokees. But, inwardly, spiritually and emotionally,
they remembered. Their descendants
remember still.” [3] [JL2]In
deed, over 175 years later we have remembered today to tell the stories of our
ancestors.
Cherokees avoided
discrimination, hiding in the hills to escape the period of Indian removals. An
example is expressed in the same text there was a family of Cherokees in North
Carolina fleeing into to the hills in a cave with other Cherokees families to
avoid removal.[4] These families were not just hiding their
identities in order to avoid discrimination; they were actually physically
hiding as well. Similarly, this story of
Cherokees families running to the hills to hide was talked about in my family
as well. Sometimes families were
separated during the period of removals this may be what have occurred with my
great-great grandmother who was on a census one year with her parents and the
next year she was on another families, possible relatives. “When the capturing of the Indians began, it
took men from their fields, children from their play, and women from their
kitchens. Two children fled into the
woods ahead of the soldiers marching determinedly down red clay Georgia lanes. The troops seized the mother. She begged them to wait until she could find
her children” The soldiers took her to the stockade anyway and there is no
mention of the children again.[5]
It is estimated
that a majority of African Americans have some Native American ancestry. “Gradually, elements of the two populations
merged, so that most American Blacks came to have a substantial admixture of
Native American ancestry.”[6] This is important to establish because this
information was not forthright in documents noting race like census and marriage
licenses. This is important because some text no longer mention this tri-linage
but refer to black and white mix, mulatto.
Hiding ones identity in the African American community or literally
physically hiding was used to survive.
A person of mixed ancestry could use a method of “passing” into a
dominant white society as appearing as a non-colored or “white person”.[7]
In the 1800’s there was a notice for a person passing as white, who the
authorities were trying to track down.
“One Hundred Dollars Reward.-Ran away from the subscriber a bright
mulatto slave, named Sam. Light, sandy
hair, blue eyes, ruddy complexion; is so white as very easily to pass for a
free white man.–April 22, 1837, Edwin Peck, Mobile”. [8] A historical impression of mixed persons in
the Native Community and African American community has been at times a
negative one. Often mixed bloods were
thought of as someone trying to hold an elite status, benefiting monetarily or
socially from a lighter skin color.
Although this may have an accurate telling of what sometimes occurred
with multiracial people, they have historically been mistreated because of
their mixed ancestry. “But b lack and
brown slaves were vociferous in story and song in their contempt for “yellow”
people, whom they regarded as flighty, prideful, and lacking in loyalty.”[9] Another example in the text were mixed people
were treated harshly due to their diverse lineage is “Some of these received
special treatment from their White relatives, but others suffered special scorn
from both White and Black. As long as
slavery lasted, most people of mixed ancestry were simply slaves.” This labeling of sorts was because the United
States forced a two cast system; Black or white.[10] Passing was an act used by multiracial persons
who hid their African American ancestry to survive. In the 1960’s there was a strong political
push to be a Pro Black community in an attempt to unify the African American
community, who had been previously divided along the lines of different hues of
skin color.[11]
This act of unification unintentionally left out Native American Ancestry from
African American identity.
There was an
ignored history of African American and Native Americans unions. The historical
evidence shows the allegiance of these two peoples and their fight against the
dominant ‘white’ society, which did not want the mixing of these two races for
fear of a revolt against the dominant population. [12]
The author cited here also states the fact that a good number of African
Americans have Native American ancestry but are unaware or do not identify as
such due partially to a pro-black movement in the civil rights era of the 1960s
and an earlier push in American history by a dominant white society that tried
to separate the two races.
This
push in the dominant society was met with resistance. This idea of resistance by Native Americans
and African Americans unions is the history of multiracial people and their
resistance to imposed racial identity.[13] Self-identity is a matter of sovereignty. The edited text cited here has many essays
that reflect on the history on multiracial people and their resistance to
imposed racial identity. An author, [JL3]Jessica
M. Rooney, gives accolade to the author Katz by stating
he created a new paradigm in the more accurate telling of the mixed heritage of
African Americans and Native Americans.
She does a review of other authors who are examining early southern
history, some of which are referenced in this paper, and states that there is
little reference to multiracial (that is Native and African) existence of the
early southeast. Usually Native American
and African American mixed persons are put in different categories. Some reference to Native American and African
American unions are found in the work of Perdue contrary to what Jessica M.
Rooney states. The appearance of
Cherokees varied. This could be due to
the heritage of Cherokee to accept women and children of enemies as part of the
tribe, and due to the fact that Cherokees mixed with African American as well
making it harder for an observer of a Euro-decent to distinguish. “ …The Cherokees, he observed, had “less
regularity” in their appearance than other Indians.” [14]
The author was referencing the history of Cherokees saying that it had been a
universal custom to take in and raise, women and children of enemies after
battles.
There are chapters
on multiracial identity between American Indians and African Americans within
this edited text. The author Denene
Anne-Marguerite De Quintal did interviews of people of mixed racial decent and
quotes authors such as Willson and Mihesuah and concludes that “By being
categorized as Black based on their phenotype, many Black Native Americans find
themselves isolated from the Native American community, since their “Blackness”
seems to invalidate their Native American heritage.” [15] A dominant society pushing two-cast system of
classification can be found as one of the root causes for overlooking of
multiracial individuals. This idea is
examined in multiple texts referenced within this paper. This is also the reason that multiracial
individuals hid their identity.
Sovereignty is
unmistakable connected to identity. When
a person is forced to hide their identity, this is really a matter of
sovereignty. Sovereignty is a matter of
retaining one’s agency. This is an
ability to direct one’s own future. No
other person, institution, or law has the right to label another person. The act of labeling, categorizing, and
racially discriminating against someone goes against that individual’s
self-determination. No outside force has
the right to determine a person’s identity.
A person’s identity, his or her own perception of self, is endowed to
each person through a genetic set of characteristics or some would say from a
“Creator”. No one or no power has the
right to deny someone of knowledge of his or her ancestors, culture, and
perspective and to decide how and to what degree that one may pay homage,
honor, and give way for the young in the future.
Today such grievances
still take place, within different fields of work in the modern world and even
within academia. There are even such
grievances within members of the same race and culture and sometimes within the
same family, even divisions within ones self of how we judge another. How we place judgment upon someone even if it
is a categorical type of action for the greatest of causes such as helping
someone get funding for higher education, to meet a quota of for equal
opportunity employment to compy with law, to do work for a good cause such as
research in a particular community, to help change a negative circumstance,
runs the risk of inaccuracy and misrepresenting an individual and their
descendants possible physical, mental and even spiritual health, as well as their
descendants identities and fostering a sense of community in future generations
yet to come to pass.
Identity within
Cherokee community particularly African American mixed identity was eventually
turned into something undesirable in the mind set of Cherokees mixed with
Euro-ancestry or full bloods due to the profits that some Cherokees took in
slave trade and the racism towards African Americans that existed in the early
Southeast. Blacks and Cherokee attitude
toward interracial marriage sharply differ.[16] The author cited here uses records from
federal projects of the 1930’s states that,
“The acceptability of interracial sex and interracial unions depended on
the race of the non Cherokee partner”.[17] In other word noting that whites acceptable
as partners blacks were not. The author
states that this desirability had an impact on the Cherokee community
particularly those who had African American descent. “ Cherokees then turned to the concepts of
race defining Cherokees in opposition to other groups, and legal citizenship,
the enactment of special legislation, to establish Cherokee identity.”
These enactments
of legislation to distinguish who is Cherokee and who is not have continued
through till the present moment. Self
Identity as a matter of sovereignty is what the Cherokee Nation in 2007 are
trying to exclude African American Cherokees claiming that they are not of
Cherokee blood. This claim is grossly
inaccurate. “In an article on Black
congressional leaders supporting Cherokee Freedman. (Pg15 News from Indian
country: The Nations Native Journal. April 2nd, 2007) Ben Evan
describes Black congressional leaders requested the U.S. congress to consider a
vote passed by the Cherokee Nation (76 percent) aimed at expelling Cherokee
Freedman from the tribe earlier this year.
The article states that the federal government spends millions of
dollars on programs each year, some of which include programs in Oklahoma. Many U.S. congressmen and women wrote a
letter to the director of the Interior Departments Bureau of Indian Affairs to
examine the ruling. A spokesperson from
the Cherokee Nation said that the ruling had to do with making sure non
-Indians with no ancestral record of Indian blood would be excluded. A statement that accurately reflects the
identity of Black Cherokee’s is given by a congressperson, “The black descendant Cherokees can trace
their Native American heritage back in many cases for more than a century,”
said Representative Dian Watson, Democrat from Calif. “They are legally a part of the Cherokee
Nation through history, precedent, blood and treaty obligations.”
In the article on
“Racism and the Cherokee Nation” (Pg. 38 News from Indian country: The Nations
Native Journal. April 2nd, 2007) William Loren Katz describes that
the recent ruling of the Cherokee Nation is based on racist views of the
Cherokee Nation. The author states that a spokesperson for the Cherokee
Freedman says that voters with in the Cherokee Nation were tricked into
thinking that Cherokee Freedmen were not Cherokee by blood. The author explains how since the first
landing of slave ships to the America’s Indigenous peoples and descendent of
Africa forge unions to combat the invasion and enslavement of Native people and
African Americans. The authors conclude
that it is a travesty that Cherokee decedents are fighting racism with of
Cherokees that shared a common struggle even 300 years later. He states “Marilyn Vann, president of the
Descendants of Freedman of the Five Civilized Tribes, has long fought racism
from both governmental officials and Indigenous figures.” The author goes on to
state that the Cherokee Nations looks upon with acceptance of Caucasian mixed
blood persons but not African American.
In the Article,
Analysis of Blood Politics, Racial Classification, and Cherokee National
Identity: The Trial and Tribulations of the Cherokee Freedmen by Circe Sturm,
the author explores how racial ideologies have filtered from the national to
the local level, where they have been internalized, manipulated, and resisted in
different ways by Cherokee citizens and Cherokee freedmen. Also, the author expresses that as a result
of this continuing dialectic between the national and the local, many Cherokees
express contradictory consciousness, because they resent discrimination on the
basis of race and yet use racially hegemonic concepts to legitimize their
social identities and police their political boundaries. The author also
expresses that currently, there is discrimination amongst Cherokee’s in regards
to African Ancestry and that tribal benefits should be revaluated.
The author offers
an analysis answering the question of why the Cherokee Freedman experience is
not widely known or formulated. The author states that the Cherokee people have
a long history of sociopolitical exclusionism of multiracial individuals of
Cherokee and African ancestry, who are treated in different ways from
multiracial individuals with Cherokee and European ancestry. Cherokees that
descended from “Cherokee by blood” according to the Dawes Rolls, even though
many Cherokee Freedmen were blood descendants but were categorized as Cherokee
Freedman for because of how they looked, and many did not register with any
roll whatsoever. The author alludes to
the fact that the Dawes Act was an attack against native sovereignty, breaking
up land ownership and labeling Cherokees as Intermarried, Freedman, or Cherokee
by blood. The Cherokee Nation later used
this against Cherokee Freedman; even though this labeling was wrong and was a
result racial divides during the 1800’s within the Cherokee Nation and with the
larger population of the Southeastern United states as a whole.
The crux of the
article is a great example of Native American Sovereignty. Any decedents of Cherokee people have every
right to identify themselves and such and have rights to any agreement of
treaties with the federal government whether or not their brothers and sisters,
distant cousins or other people within the Cherokee Nation believe they belong
or not. It is a very saddening affair that
there is such discrimination and racial injustice between Native peoples,
especially when one considers the tumultuous history of Native Americans of the
Southeast United States. Currently in Oklahoma, the struggle of Cherokee
Freedman goes on today. Unfortunately
dissention amongst Native Americans does not stop there. There are Natives from the reservation, those
from the city, those who are more traditional, and those who take on more
modern values that don’t necessarily get along with one another. There has always been tension with those who
are from mixed racial descent compared with those who are full blooded, or
fully documented as “authentic” within a certain time period.
In Theda Perdue’s
work “Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial
Construction in the Early South examines the notion of a dominant society
asserting its will. “And finally, it
drives a wedge between the members of a Native community by using “blood” to
privilege some individuals and to discredit others, and ultimately to
radicalize Native societies in ways that are foreign to Native cultural
traditions.” [18] This author also sites a case of a slave of
African American decent being offered as payment to a Cherokee man for the
death of a family member in the 1700’s.
This Cherokee man married this women who was adopted into the tribe and
their decedents where considered Cherokee.
The author goes on to state that increasingly in the 1800’s this was not
a typical case because run away slaves had a bounty on their heads and this was
a way that the dominant society put a wedge between African Americans and
Native Americans. “The absence of a
uniform census makes the slave population among the southern Indians before
1860 difficult to calculate, but the rolls compiled in preparation for their removal
east of the Mississippi provide some indication of the extent of
slaveholding.” This statement uses “some
indication” this may be due to the fact that census takers were often under the
influence of racism. If a person looked
phonetically black they may not have been included in the Cherokee census. Or counted as slave when they were not. This exclusion may have been deliberate,
because of the distain of any one with “one drop of slave blood”.
In my own research
of the census rolls that I gathered at the Tennessee National archives in 2003,
a question a census interviewer asks evokes an answer by one Amanda F. Fuqua
who was rejected from a roll answered a question in # 9 in a application number
39898 wrote out referring to her ancestors “No they were not slaves” showing
that for whatever be the reason, the question of African American Blood had to
be distinguished when classifying rolls for eastern band Cherokee decedents.
Alicia Tiya an
author that examined that, multiracial individuals resisted the classification
by external forces. “At every point in their story they straddled and stripped
the categories cast to enclose them—by government agents, slaveholders, and
even historians.”[19] She expresses the injustice that multiracial
individuals faced in opposition to a dominant society classifying them. “African Americans were excised from
relationship with Native people, who were in fact their family members, fellow
tribal members, and in to many cases former masters.”[20]
In this dissertation the author seeks to study the history of Cherokees and
blacks in the history of the southeast and Indian Territory in the west. The author examines using an
interdisciplinary approach to examine the lack of this history in previous
works and anticipates that this work will bridge a relation between these
groups that crosses traditional boundaries of race, region and forge a new
perspective. [21]
There is a
collection of works that lists the government rolls of registered Cherokees
throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The work includes the famous Dawes rolls,
which are used today by the Cherokee Nation to determine if a person is of
Cherokee descent. The text states that
many people on all of the rolls that were created during this time period did
not officially become apart of the rolls.[22] The government-imposed rolls discriminated
between people who were Cherokee by blood, Cherokee Freedman, and Cherokee by
marriage. A Cherokee Freedman was
considered a former slave who was set free within the Cherokee Nation. Due to the racial discrimination of the time,
if a person appeared to have traits of African descent or admitted to have
a “drop” of African-American blood her
or she was labeled as Cherokee Freedman and sometimes rejected from tribal
enrollment.
Discussion (Ideas for the future in an APA style)
A history
professor refers to political, social, racial, and economic, tensions in
America on the very last day of an American history class that was named
American Civilization Since the Late 19-Century states “Don’t go yet! I want to
leave you with one more observation from the text. The impact from this victory on policy
remains to be seen… Most analysts agree,
that the healing of the Nations divisions will be one of the countries most
formidable tasks one could argue that (um this is indeed a difficult but not
impossible task, those divisions ain’t
been healed yet and not every one wants to heal those colorful
differences… but at the end of the day,
… for all of the difficulty of writing a history of the present, sources are
not all available… there are… involved of the telling of the story who want to
defend their actions…. I want to leave
you with a very naïve point or belief on my part if nothing else I remain
committed ah to, what I’m going to say is not even a belief perhaps may be it’s
a hook, a very solid understanding of the American past a can help us
understand the present better, or at least help us make some what more informed
choices. As I said, this maybe a naïve
hook on my part, but it is what I do for a living….(Arenesen lecture 5/2/2007
UIC).
Much of the works
cited, referred to the defiance of the majority from multiracial individuals
from Native American, African American and Euro American who fought the
categorization of their history by an oppressive society through hiding for
survival and out right refusal to be categorized. This defiance lead to a defensive and
threatened foe to assert more pressure of racial categorization on multiracial
individuals. Persons of color, multiracial,
mixed blood folks were persecuted because they did not want to conform to the
dominant cultures labeling. Persons of
color stood for justice when the dominant society encroached upon their lands.
My own father
exhibited acts of passing and defiance.
He and his brothers in a pre-civil rights south in the 20th
century spoke a made up language with his brothers at a movie theater acting
like they were foreigners in order to pass through White only set of
doors. My own father passing with my mother
is another example with in my ancestry.
This act of omission by not telling myself and my siblings of our
African American heritage, and Jewish Canadian descent until I discovered this
my seeking out relative on my fathers side and trying to fulfill a life long
feeling of being compelled to seek my history out particularly my native
history, because it had been so fleeting in comparison to how I was taught
history in a middle class school system in the 1980’s.
During this
research I have found many references listed here to African Americans being
mixed with Native Americans. For the
future it may be use full to examine state census information looking at the
reappearance of Native and possible African American disappearance and
reappearance, of certain races in certain time periods. It may also be helpful
to examine records from European countries that had a presence in early
America, such as France or Spain in hopes to recover more accurate data from
the history of the South Eastern United States.
Also, it may be helpful to look
up overall economy and see if economical slumps and depressions correlate with
the persecution of mixed bloods through out time and particularly those of
mixed African American and Native American descent even with in Native
communities and seizing of agency from this population.
I am a descendent
of Black Cherokee people and this, in my opinion, implies landlessness. For early Southeastern history peoples in the
minorities and those in a lower socioeconomic bracket (but not limited to) were
needed together like the making of homemade bread. This needing came from external and internal
forces of human behavior through out early American South eastern History. What weight shall these forces bear onto this
homemade bread that has been kneaded, given way to rise with yeast of time and
temperament, to be heated and presented at the table of humanity in this
era? May each ingredient bear fruits of
peace onto our divided Nation. May these
fruitful offerings be an example of the joy that life now and in the future can
imaginably be.
References
Perdue, Theda. (2003).“Mixed
Blood” Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.
Sturm, Circe. (1998).
“Blood Politics, Racial Classification, and Cherokee National Identity:
The Trials and Tribulations of the Cherokee Freedman.” American
Indian Quarterly 22, No. 28. (Winter-Spring): 230-258.
Spickard, Paul R (1989). Mixed
Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America.
Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press.
McClure, Tony Mack.
(1999). Cherokee Proud: A Guide
for Tracing and Honoring Your Cherokee Ancestors. Somerville, TN: Chunannee Books.
Jahoda, Gloria. (1975).
The Trail of Tears the Story of
the American Indian Removals 1813-1855 New York, NY: Wing Books.
Blankenship, Bob.
(1992). Cherokee Roots: Eastern Cherokee Rolls. Volume I. Cherokee NC: Bob Blankenship.
Miles, Tiya, Alicia.
(2000). “Bone Of My Bone” Story of a
Black-Cherokee Family 1790-1866. University
of Minnesota. Graduate School. Copy
right 2001: Miles, Tiya, Alicia.
Katz, William Loren.
(1986). A Hidden Heritage: Black
Indians. New York, NY: Simon Pluse.
Straus, Terry and Denene Dequintal, eds. (2005). Race, Roots and Relations Native and African
Americans. Chic
ago: Albatross Press.
Yarbrough, Fay. A, (2003).
“Those disgraceful and unnatural
matches: Interracial sex in the Cherokee Society in the nineteenth century. School of Emory University Department of
History. Copy right 2003: Yarbrough Fay Ann
[1] Gloria
Jahoda. The Trail of Tears the Story of the American Indian Removals 1813-1855(
New York, NY: Wing Books 1975).
[2] Tony Mack McClure.
Cherokee Proud: A Guide for
Tracing and Honoring Your Cherokee Ancestors. (Somerville, TN: Chunannee Books 1999)
[3] Gloria
Jahoda. The Trail of Tears the Story of the American Indian Removals 1813-1855(
New York, NY: Wing Books 1975).
[4] Gloria
Jahoda. The Trail of Tears the Story of the American Indian Removals 1813-1855(
New York, NY: Wing Books 1975).
[5] Gloria
Jahoda. The Trail of Tears the Story of the American Indian Removals 1813-1855(
New York, NY: Wing Books 1975).
[6] Paul R.
Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and
Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[7] Paul R. Spickard.
Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century
America. (Madison, WI: The University
of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[8] Paul R.
Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and
Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[9] Paul R. Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic
Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison,
WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[10] Paul R.
Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and
Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[11] Paul R.
Spickard. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and
Ethnic Identity in the Twentieth-Century America. (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press 1989).
[12] William Loren Katz.
A Hidden Heritage: Black Indians A
Hidden Heritage. (New York, NY:
Simon Pluse 1986)
[13]Terry Straus, and Denene Dequintal, eds. Race,
Roots and Relations Native and African Americans. Chicago: Albatross Press
2005)
[14]
Theda Perdue. “Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. (
Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press 2003)
[15] Terry Straus, and Denene Dequintal, eds. Race,
Roots and Relations Native and African Americans. Chicago: Albatross Press
2005)
[16] Fay A.
Yarbrough. “Those disgraceful and unnatural matches: Interracial sex in the
Cherokee Society in the nineteenth century.
(School of Emory University Department of History: Yarbrough Fay Ann
2003)
[17] Fay A. Yarbrough.
“Those disgraceful and unnatural
matches: Interracial sex in the Cherokee Society in the nineteenth century. (School of Emory University Department of
History: Yarbrough Fay Ann 2003)
[18]
Theda Perdue. “Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press
2003)
[19] Alicia Tiya, Miles. Tiya, Alicia. “Bone
Of My Bone” Story of a Black-Cherokee Family 1790-1866. ( University of
Minnesota Graduate School. Copy right
2000)
[20] Alicia Tiya, Miles. Tiya, Alicia. “Bone Of My Bone” Story of a
Black-Cherokee Family 1790-1866. ( University of Minnesota Graduate
School. Copy right 2000)
[21] Alicia Tiya, Miles. Tiya, Alicia. “Bone Of My Bone” Story of a
Black-Cherokee Family 1790-1866. ( University of Minnesota Graduate
School. Copy right 2000)
[22] Bob Blankenship.
Cherokee Roots: Eastern Cherokee
Rolls. Volume I. (Cherokee NC: Bob
Blankenship 1992).
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